Inter-War Diplomacy The Aftermath of WWI Blockade of Germany Throughout the armistice the Allies maintained the naval blockade of Germany begun during the war. This blockade is estimated to have caused the death of 800,000 German civilians from malnutrition during the final two years of the war. The continuation of the blockade after the fighting ended, as Leckie wrote in Delivered From Evil, would "torment the Germans… driving them with the fury of despair into the arms of the devil". Some historians have since argued that the harsh post-war treatment was one of the primary causes of World War II, others have advocated the Allies should have been even harder on Germany. - - Winston Churchill referred to the blockade during his March 3, 1919, speech to the British House of Commons: "We are holding all our means of coercion in full operation… we are enforcing the blockade with vigour… Germany is very near starvation. The evidence I have received… shows… the great danger of a collapse of the entire structure of German social and national life, under the pressure of hunger and malnutrition." The blockade was not lifted until June of 1919 when the Treaty of Versailles was signed by most of the combatant nations. Treaty of Versailles (See below for more details) After the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June the 28th 1919 officially ended the war. Included in the 440 articles of the treaty were the demands that Germany officially accept responsibility for starting the war and pay heavy economic reparations. The treaty also included a clause to create the League of Nations. The US Senate never ratified this treaty and the US did not join the League, despite President Wilson's active campaigning in support of the League. The United States negotiated a separate peace with Germany, finalised in August 1921. An indirect action of the treaty, the division of Germany’s colonies throughout Africa and Asia, would not be seen for decades. America, while not happy with the terms of the treaty, pressed European nations that were accepting Germany’s old colonies to have the native citizens there treated with the same respect they got when Germany were there. This was not the case, especially in French Indochina (the future Vietnam) and would lead to future conflict. Influenza pandemic A separate but related event was the great influenza pandemic. A virulent new strain of the flu, originating in the United States but misleadingly known as "Spanish Flu", was accidentally carried to Europe by infected American forces personnel. The disease spread rapidly through both the continental U.S. and Europe, eventually reaching around the globe. The exact number of deaths is unknown but over 20 million people are estimated to have died from the flu worldwide. In 2005, a study found that, "The 1918 virus strain developed in birds and was similar to the 'bird flu' that today has spurred fears of another worldwide epidemic." Geopolitical and economic consequences of WWI Revolutions Perhaps the single most important event precipitated by the privations of the war was the Russian Revolution of 1917. Socialist and explicitly Communist uprisings also occurred in many other European countries from 1917 onwards, notably in Germany and Hungary. As a result of the Bolsheviks' failure to cede territory, German and Austrian forces defeated the Russian armies, and the new communist government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. In that treaty, Russia renounced all claims to Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland (specifically, the formerly Russian-controlled Congress Poland of 1815) and Ukraine, and it was left to Germany and Austria-Hungary "to determine the future status of these territories in agreement with their population." Later on, Lenin's government renounced also the Partition of Poland treaty, making it possible for Poland to claim its 1772 borders. However, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was rendered obsolete when Germany was defeated later in 1918, leaving the status of much of eastern Europe in an uncertain position. Germany The German Revolution is a series of events that occurred in 1918-1919, culminating in the overthrow of the Kaiser and the establishment of the weak Weimar Republic. Like the Russian February Revolution, no single political party led the rebellion, and workers' councils similar to the soviets seized power across the country. However, the events continued to polarise the Left, not least because of the use of the right-wing Freikorps paramilitaries by the Social-Democratic government in order to suppress the far-left Spartacist revolt. Like the Russian Revolution, the German Revolution occurred in the context of the disastrous consequences of World War I. The concession of defeat in war by the Supreme Command under Erich Ludendorff triggered a political crisis, leading to the assumption of power by the liberal Prince Max von Baden. Although the main mass workers' party, the Social-Democratic Party (SPD), participated in the Government, this proved insufficient in preventing rebellion. Communists of the Spartacist League fighting in the streetsThe uprising began in Kiel from 29 October - 3 November 1918, when forty thousand sailors and marines took over the port in protest at a proposed engagement with the Royal Navy by German Naval Command, seeing as they considered the attack "suicidal". By November 8, Workers' and Soldiers' Councils had seized most of Western Germany, laying the foundations for the so-called Räterepublik ("Council Republic"). Kaiser Wilhelm was forced to abdicate on 9 November, ending the German monarchy, although monarchial support continued to run strong, especially in the middle- and upper-classes. The SPD were catapulted into power as rulers of the new republic alongside their more radical counterparts, the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD). However, the united front disintegrated in late December 1918 as the USPD left the coalition in protest at perceived SPD compromises with the (capitalist) status quo. Furthermore, a second revolutionary wave swept Germany in January 1919, led by the communist revolutionary Spartacist League. In response, Social-Democratic leader Friedrich Ebert employed nationalist militia, the Freikorps, to suppress the uprising. The two most famous victims of this counter-revolutionary operation were the Spartacist leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, who were killed on 15 January 1919. By May 1919, the revolutionary Left were routed. The German Revolution laid the foundations for the Weimar Republic which in turn paved the way for the Nazis to rise to power. Russia Russia, already suffering socially and economically, was torn by a deadly civil war that killed more than 15 million people in one way or another and devastated large areas of the country. During the Russian Revolution and subsequent civil war, many non-Russian nations gained brief or longer lasting periods of independence. Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia gained relatively permanent independence, although the Baltic states were annexed by the Soviet Union in 1939. Romania, initially formed from the union of Wallachia and Moldova retrieved the Bessarabia from Russia. Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan states were established in Caucasus region. In 1922 all these countries were invaded by Soviets and proclaimed Soviet Republics. Similar events happened in Central Asia. However, the Soviet Union, the successor of the Russian Empire, was lucky that Germany lost the war against the Western Allies because it was able to reject the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. That treaty would have taken huge portions of rich territory and population from them. Austro-Hungarian Empire With the war having turned decisively against the Central Powers, the peoples of the Austro-Hungarian Empire lost faith in it, and even before the armistice in November, radical nationalism had already lead to several declarations of independence in September and October 1918. Originally the Allies had hoped to maintain Austria-Hungary (although reduced) as a counterbalance to German power in central Europe and had interpreted the Woodrow Wilson's 14 points within the framework of a federal Austria-Hungary. However, due to progress of the war and lobbying by separatists from within and outside the Empire the Allied powers slowly began to recognise its nations as distinct entities. The resolution of borders and governments in south-central Europe in the time after November 1918 was not easy. As the central government had ceased to operate vast areas, these regions found themselves without a government and many new groups attempted to fill the void. During this same period, the population was facing food shortages and was, for the most part, demoralized by the losses incurred during the war. Various political parties, ranging from ardent nationalists, to social-democrats, to communists attempted to set up governments in the names of the different nationalities. In other areas, existing nation states such as Romania engaged regions that they considered to be theirs. These moves created de-facto governments that complicated life for diplomats, idealists, and the western allies. The western allies were officially supposed to occupy the old Empire but rarely had enough troops to do so effectively. They had to deal with local authorities who usually had their own agenda to fulfill. At the peace conference in Paris the diplomats had to reconcile these authorities with the competing demands of the nationalists who had turned to them for help during the war, the strategic or political desires of the Western allies themselves, and other agendas such as a desire to implement the spirit of the 14 points. For example, in order to live up to the ideal of self determination laid out in the 14 points, Germans, whether Austrian or German should be able to decide their own future and government. However, the French especially were concerned that an expanded Germany would be a huge security risk. Further complicating the situation, delegations such as the Czechs and Slovenians made strong claims on some German-speaking territories. The result was treaties that compromised many ideals, offended many allies, and set up an entirely new order in the area. Many people hoped that the new nation states would allow for a new era of prosperity and peace in the region, free from the bitter quarelling between nationalities that had marked the preceding fifty years. However, this hope turned out to be far too optimistic. Changes in territorial configuration after World War I included:
Establishment of the new republics of Austria and Hungary, disavowing any continuity with the empire and exiling the Habsburg family in perpetuity.
The borders of new independent Hungary did not included a two thirds of the lands of former Kingdom of Hungary, though it did include most of the areas where the ethnic Magyars were in a majority. The new republic of Austria maintained control over most of the mostly German-dominated areas, but lost various other lands.
Bohemia, Moravia, Czech Silesia, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia formed the new Czechoslovakia.
Galicia was transferred to Poland.
The South Tyrol and Trieste were granted to Italy.
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia-Slavonia, Dalmatia, Slovenia, and Vojvodina were joined with Serbia and Montenegro to form the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later Yugoslavia.
Transylvania became part of Romania.
These changes were recognised in, but not caused by, the Treaty of Versailles. They were subsequently further elaborated in the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Trianon.
The new states of eastern Europe nearly all had large national minorities. Hundreds of thousands of Germans found themselves in the newly created countries as minorities. A quarter of ethnic Hungarians found themselves living outside of Hungary. Many of these national minorities found themselves in bad situations because the modern governments were intent on defining the national character of the countries, often at the expense of the other nationalities. Ottoman Empire At the end of the war the Ottoman government collapsed completely and the Ottoman Empire was divided amongst the victorious powers with the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres on August 10, 1920. France and Britain got most of the Middle East, and the British were given the Mandate of Palestine under the League of Nations. Italy and Greece were given much of Anatolia. But Treaty of Sèvres was never applied and Turkish resistance forced out the Greeks while the Italians were unable to establish themselves.An autonomous Kurdish area was also created, but attempts to become independent in the 1920s were suppressed by the Turkish revolutionaries. After Turkish resistance led by Kemal Atatürk had developed the control over the Anatolia and pushed the allies out, a new treaty was needed as the conditions of the Treaty of Sèvres was inapplicable. The Treaty of Lausanne formally ended all hostilities and led to the creation of the modern Turkish republic. Before Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey and the Soviet Union had already signed the Treaty of Kars , which already brought the peace on the eastern boarder of Turkey. Treaty of Kars was ratified in Yerevan on September 11, 1922 after First Republic of Armenia became part of Soviet Union United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, funding the War had a huge economic cost. From being the World's largest overseas investor, it became one of its biggest debtors, with interest payments forming around 40% of all government spending. Inflation more than doubled between 1914 and its peak in 1920, while the value of the Pound Sterling (consumer expenditure [2]) fell by 61.2%. Reparations in the form of free German coal depressed the local industry, precipitating the 1926 General Strike. Less concrete changes include the growing assertiveness of Commonwealth nations. Battles such as Gallipoli for Australia and New Zealand, and Vimy Ridge for Canada led to increased national pride and a greater reluctance to remain subordinate to Britain, leading to the growth of diplomatic autonomy in the 1920s. Traditionally loyal dominions such as Newfoundland were deeply disillusioned by Britain's apparent disregard for their soldiers, eventually leading to the unification of Newfoundland into the Confederation of Canada. Colonies such as India and Nigeria also became increasingly assertive because of their participation in the war. The populations in these countries became increasingly aware of their own power and Britain's fragility. In Ireland the delay in finding a resolution to the home rule issue, partly caused by the war, as well as the 1916 Easter Rising and a failed attempt to introduce conscription in Ireland, increased support for separatist radicals, and led indirectly to the outbreak of the Anglo-Irish War in 1919. United States In the USA, disillusioned by the failure of the war to achieve the high ideals promised by President Woodrow Wilson, the American people chose isolationism and, after an initial recession enjoyed several years of unbalanced prosperity until the 1929 Stock Market crash. However, American commercial interests did finance Germany's rebuilding and reparations efforts, at least until the onset of the Great Depression. The close relationships between American and German businesses became somewhat of an embarrassment after the Nazis took over Germany in 1933. France For France, the end of the War seemed to finally mark the end of Prussian-German domination which had lasted since the 1870 Franco-Prussian War. However the Chief commander of the Allied forces, Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch, had demanded that for the future protection of France the Rhine river should now form the border between France and Germany. Based on history, he was convinced that Germany would again become a threat, and, on hearing the terms of the Treaty of Versailles that had left Germany substantially intact, he observed with great accuracy that "This is not Peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years." After this critical statement, Foch was amazed to see himself rise in power. Also extremely important in the War was the participation of French colonial troops from Indochina, North Africa, and Madagascar without whom France might well have fallen. When these soldiers returned to their homelands and continued to be treated as second class citizens, many became the nucleus of pro-independence groups. Social trauma The experiences of the war led to a sort of collective national trauma afterwards for all the participating countries. The optimism of 1900 was entirely gone and those who fought in the war became what is known as "the Lost Generation" because they never fully recovered from their experiences. For the next few years much of Europe became obsessive in its mourning and memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns. This social trauma manifested itself in many different ways. Some people were revolted by nationalism and what it had caused and began to work toward a more internationalist world through organizations such as the League of Nations. Pacifism became increasingly popular. Others had the opposite reaction, feeling that only strength and military might could be relied on for protection in a chaotic and inhumane world that did not respect hypothetical notions of civilization. Certainly a sense of disillusionment and cynicism became pronounced. Nihilism grew in popularity. Many people believed that the war heralded the end of the world as they had known it, including the collapse of capitalism and imperialism. Communist and socialist movements around the world drew strength from this theory, enjoying a level of popularity they had never known before. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or particularly harshly affected by the war such as central Europe, Russia, and France. Artists such as Otto Dix, George Grosz, Ernst Barlach, and Käthe Kollwitz represented their experiences, or those of their society, in blunt paintings and sculpture. Similarly, authors such as Erich Maria Remarque wrote grim novels detailing their experiences. These works had a strong impact on society causing a great deal of controversy and highlighting conflicting interpretations of the war. In Germany, nationalists including the Nazis believed that much of this work was degenerate and undermined the cohesion of society as well as dishonouring the dead. Postwar settlements After the war, the victors met at the Palace of Versailles, near Paris, to tell Germany the terms of peace. Defeated Germany was not allowed to send any delegates, and had no choice but to accept whatever was decided. Most of the delegates wanted revenge. Only President Woodrow Wilson of the United States wanted a better world. Woodrow Wilson: President of America. He was a History professor. He wanted to make the world safe. He wanted to end war by making a fair peace. In 1918, Wilson published ‘Fourteen Points’ saying what he wanted.He said that he wanted disarmament, and a League of Nations. He also promised self-determination for the peoples of Eastern Europe. Lloyd George: Prime Minister of England. He said he would ‘make Germany pay’ – because he knew that was what the British people wanted to hear. He wanted ‘justice’, but he did not want revenge. He said that the peace must not be harsh – that would just cause another war in a few years time. He tried to get a ‘halfway point’ – a compromise between Wilson and Clemenceau. Georges Clemenceau: Prime Minister of France. He wanted revenge, and to punish the Germans for what they had done. He wanted to make Germany pay for the damage done during the war. He also wanted to weaken Germany, so France would never be invaded again Some Terms of the Treaty
1.Germany had to accept the blame for starting the war. 2.Germany was forbidden to have submarines or an air force. She could have a navy of only six battleships, and an army of just 100,000 men. In addition, Germany was not allowed to place any troops in the Rhineland, the strip of land, 50 miles wide, next to France. 3.Germany had to pay £6,600 million, called reparations, for the damage done during the war. 4.Germany lost land in Europe. Germany’s colonies were given to Britain and France. 5.Germany could not join the League of Nations 6.Germany could never unite with Austria. Map 1: German Territorial Losses, Treaty of Versailles, 1919 German response to the Treaty When the Germans heard about the Treaty of Versailles, they felt ‘pain and anger’. They felt it was unfair. They had not been allowed to take part in the talks – they had just been told to sign. At first they refused to sign the Treaty. Some Germans wanted to start the war again. 1.The Germans were angry at Clause 231; they said they were not to blame for the war. The soldier sent to sign the Treaty refused to sign it – ‘To say such a thing would be a lie,’ he said. 2.The Germans were angry about reparations; they said France and Britain were trying to starve their children to death. At first they refused to pay, and only started paying after France and Britain invaded Germany (January 1921). 3.The Germans were angry about their tinyarmy. They said they were helpless against other countries. At first they refused to reduce the army, and the sailors sank the fleet, rather than hand it over. 4.The Germans also thought the loss ofterritory was unfair. Germany lost a tenth of its land. Other nations were given self-determination – but the Treaty forced Germans to live in other countries. Germans were also angry that they could not unite with the Austrian Germans.
Verdicts on the Treaty
Clemenceau: liked the harsh things that were in the Treaty: ·Reparations (would repair the damage to France), ·The tiny German army, and the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland (would protect France), ·France got Alsace-Lorraine, and German colonies. But he wanted the Treaty to be harsher. Wilson: Wilson got self-determination for the peoples of Eastern Europe, and a League of Nations, but he hated the Treaty: ·few of his ‘Fourteen Points’ got into the Treaty, ·when Wilson went back to America, the Senate refused to join the League of Nations, and even refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles! Lloyd George: Many British people wanted to ‘make Germany pay’, but Lloyd George hated the Treaty. He liked: ·the fact that Britain got some German colonies, ·the small German navy (helped British sea-power). But he thought that the Treaty was far too harsh. Other Treaties ·The Treaty of Saint Germain with Austria in 1919 took land from the old Austrian empire to create Czechoslovakia and (by giving it to Serbia) Yugoslavia. Austria also lost territory to Poland. ·The Treaty of Trianon with Hungary in 1920 took land from Hungary and gave it to the new nation-states. Transylvania was given to Romania, and land was given to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. ·The Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria in 1919 gave Bulgarian land to Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia. ·The Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey in 1920 was mainly about splitting up the Turkish empire between France and Britain, but as part of the Treaty, most of the small area of Turkey-in-Europe around Constantinople was given to Greece. In fact, however, this did not last very long – the Turks went to war with the Greeks and drove them out, and the Treaty of Lausanne 1923 gave back this land to Turkey. The major powers had different aims in 1919 for the post-war world. 1.USA – The republicans defeated Woodrow Wilson in the 1920 presidential election, and they wanted isolation from European affairs. 2.France – France still wasted security from the possibility of a third German attack. To do this she had two policies: ·Encirclement – She tried to surround Germany with countries who were friendlier to France, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Rumania and Poland (The Little Entente) ·France rearmed herself and strengthen her Rhineland border with Germany, by building the Maginot Line (1929-34) 3.Britain wanted to recover her wealth and power via trade. 4.Germany – The Weimargovernment wanted recovery in every sense: military, economic, political and diplomatic. In order for Germany to achieve any of these, she would have to break the Treaty of Versailles (28th June 1919). Note: Britain and Germany had one thing in common – the need to recover via trade. Overview: Improvement and Decline in International Relations (1920-39) 1920s There was an improvement in international relations in the 1920s, mainly due to the work of three foreign ministers: Austen Chamberlain, Briand and Stresemann (Britain, France and Germany) 1930s Relations between the powers deteriorated in the 1930s,l especially after 1929, after the Wall Street Crash (29th October) when the major powers’ economies declined, leading to a depression. As a result of the depression, extremist groups (Communists and Fascists) became popular (flourished). The aggressive policies of the Fascists (Germany, Italy and Japan) resulted in the Second World War.) In the 1930s relations between the powers deteriorated. 1929 Stresemann died and Briand and Chamberlain were out of office. October 1929, Wall Street Crash, led to a depression in Europe and extremist political groups (Fascist, Nazis) grew in popularity. Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany offered economic growth to their ‘depressed’ peoples and their aggressive foreign policies led to the Second World War (1939-45). In the 1930s neither power diplomacy, nor the League of Nations, could prevent war.
Wall Street Crash and Great Depression
When the Wall Street stock market crashed in October 1929 the world economy was plunged into the great **depression**. By the winter of 1932, America was in the depths of the greatest depression in its history.
Causes of the Depression
As early as 1926 there were signs that the boom was under threat - this was seen in the collapse of land prices in Florida.
Eventually there were too many goods being made and not enough people to buy them.
Farmers had produced too much food in the 1920s, so that prices for their produce became steadily lower.
There were far too many small banks - these banks did not have enough funds to cope with the sudden rush to take out savings which happened in the autumn of 1929.
Too much speculation on the stock market - the middle class had a lot to lose and they had spent a lot on what amounted to pieces of paper.
The Wall Street Crash of October 1929 was a massive psychological blow.
America had lent huge sums of money to European countries. When the stock market collapsed they suddenly recalled these loans. This had a devastating impact on the European economy.
The collapse of European banks caused a general world financial crisis.
Impact of the crash on Germany
The League of Nations
Origins The idea of international co-operation was not a new one in 1919. There had been earlier attempts, for example: 1864 – International Red Cross, Geneva
1865 – International Telegraph Union
1878 – International Meteorological Organisation
1899 – International Court, The Hague The last of Wilson’s fourteen points said that a League of Nations should be set up, to keep peace after 1919. To ensure that it was established, Wilson insisted that the League of Nations should be written into the Treaty of Versailles (28th June 1919).
Aims 1.To keep peace 2.To improve living conditions of men and women world-wide
Organisation The League first met in 1920, in January, and each state had to take an oath (covenant) to say they would abide by the League’s rules for international law and order. The diagram below outlines the organisational structure of the League. Assembly In the autumn of each year, each state would send up to three delegates to the Geneva assembly to discuss world problems. Each country had one vote, and a unanimous vote was needed to decide action. As unanimity was never reached, resolutions were passed onto the council.
Council The great powers (Britain, France, Italy and Japan) of 1920 sat permanently on the council, with smaller nations who observed. They met three or four times a year, and at times of crisis. By a unanimous vote they could levy three sanctions against a nation who broke peace: a.Moral sanction – A polite warning b.Economic sanction – The League stopped trading with the offender c.Military sanction – As a last resort the League would impose its will by force No sanction could be used if a nation used its veto. The idea was that collective action would produce collective security, and thereby peace. (United we stand, divided we fall) The League’s responses were long-winded.
The Court of Justice Set up in 1899, at The Hague, in Holland, this department dealt with legal disputes between nations.
International Labour Organisation (ILO) Its first chairman was Albert Thomas, and he collected evidence world-wide, about working conditions. He wrote a code of good practice, which included: ·Safety regulations ·Sick pay ·Pensions ·Maternity leave ·Trade Union rights ·Restrictions of child labour
Commissions See diagram above. Special departments dealt with specific world problems.
Secretariat The first Secretary General was Sir. Eric Drummond, and he led the League’s administration department (Civil Service). He was in charge of: ·Filing information ·Translations ·Press releases
Membership 1920: 24 members
1924: 55 members
1934: 60 members Some nations joined the League late, e.g. Germany in 1926, USSR in 1934. 18 nations left the League, e.g. Germany in 1933 because other nations would not disarm to her level, Japan in 1933 after invading Manchuria, Italy in 1937 after invading Abyssinia, USSR in 1939 dismissed after the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Note: AMERICADID NOT JOIN THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
(It did join the ILO) League of Nations at Work (1920-1939)
1. It’s success in achieving its second aim (To improve living conditions for men and women world-wide) a.The ILO was so successful that the USA joined it. In 1945 it transferred to the UNO. b.The Health Commission stopped disease epidemics (e.g. measles) c.The Leprosy Commission helped eliminate leprosy. d.The Transit and Communication Commission standardised passports and visas, and radio codes were also made common. (Mayday was internationalised.) e.The Mandates Commission, under Lord Lugard, helped colonies to reach independence. f.Doctor Nansen helped resettle homeless and stateless people from the Refugee Commission.
2. LON – some successes Åland Islands Åland is a collection of around 6,500 islands mid-way between Sweden and Finland. The islands are exclusively Swedish-speaking, but Finland had sovereignty in the early 1900s. During the period from 1917 onwards, most residents wished the islands to become part of Sweden; Finland, however, did not wish to cede the islands. The Swedish government raised the issue with the League in 1921. After close consideration, the League determined that the islands should remain a part of Finland, but be governed autonomously, averting a potential war. Albania The border between Albania and Yugoslavia remained in dispute after the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, and Yugoslavian forces occupied some Albanian territory. After clashes with Albanian tribesmen, the Yugoslav forces invaded further. The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region. The commission found in favour of Albania, and the Yugoslav forces withdrew in 1921, albeit under protest. War was again prevented. Upper Silesia The Treaty of Versailles had ordered a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should be part of Germany or Poland. In the background, strong-arm tactics and discrimination against Poles led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920). In the plebiscite, roughly 59.6% (around 500,000) of the votes were cast for joining Germany, and this result led to the Third Silesian Uprising in 1921. The League was asked to settle the matter. In 1922, a six-week investigation found that the land should be split; the decision was accepted by both countries and by the majority of Upper Silesians. Memel The port city of Memel (now Klaipėda) and the surrounding area was placed under League control after the end of the World War I and was governed by a French general for three years. However, the population was mostly Lithuanian, and the Lithuanian government placed a claim to the territory, with Lithuanian forces invading in 1923. The League chose to cede the land around Memel to Lithuania, but declared the port should remain an international zone; Lithuania agreed. While the decision could be seen as a failure (in that the League reacted passively to the use of force), the settlement of the issue without significant bloodshed was a point in the League's favour. Greece and Bulgaria After an incident between sentries on the border between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925, Greek troops invaded their neighbour. Bulgaria ordered its troops to provide only token resistance, trusting the League to settle the dispute. The League did indeed condemn the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria. Greece complied, but complained about the disparity between their treatment and that of Italy Saar Saar was a province formed from parts of Prussia and the Rhenish Palatinate that was established and placed under League control after the Treaty of Versailles. A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule, to determine whether the region should belong to Germany or France. 90.3% of votes cast were in favour of becoming part of Germany in that 1935 referendum, and it became part of Germany again. Mosul The League successfully - parcicularly for the British and other oil-seekers - resolved a dispute between Iraq and Turkey over the control of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in 1926. According to the UK, which was awarded a League of Nations A-mandate over Iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. A three person League of Nations committee was sent to the region in 1924 to study the case and in 1925 recommended the region to be connected to Iraq, under the condition that the UK would hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to assure the autonomous rights of the Kurdish population. The League Council adopted the recommendation and it decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq. Although Turkey had accepted the League of Nations arbitration in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, it rejected the League's decision. Nonetheless, the UK, Iraq and Turkey made a treaty on 5 June 1926, that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq. LON – failures Ruhr Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany had to pay reparations. They could pay in money or in goods at a set value; however, in 1922 Germany was not able to make its payment. The next year, France and Belgium chose to act upon this, and invaded the industrial heartland of Germany, the Ruhr, despite this being in direct contravention of the League's rules. With France being a major League member, and the United Kingdom hesitant to oppose its close ally, nothing was done in the League despite the clear breach of League rules. This set a significant precedent – the League rarely acted against major powers, and occasionally broke its own rules. The Manchurian Crisis 18th September 1931, Japanese troops invaded Manchuria and attacked the industrial city of Mukden. Chiang Kai Shek (Chinese nationalist Leader) appealed to the League and to the USA for help. America protested and the League made a ‘Moral sanction’ and sent a Commission to Manchuria led by Lytton whose report condemned Japanese aggression. Unperturbed Japan renamed Manchuria, ‘Manchukuo’ in March 1932, and continued to occupy it. In 1933 Japan left the League of Nations. The big powers were more concerned with domestic issues (National interests came before the League’s affairs). Japanese aggression was not halted, the League’s ‘collective action’ had amounted to nothing. NB. Only Germany and Italy recognised Japan’s control in ‘Manchukuo’.
Moral Suasion. The Rabbit. "My offensive equipment being practically nil, it remains for me to fascinate him with the power of my eye." ----
Cartoon from Punch magazine, July 28th 1920, satirising the perceived weakness of the League.
Chaco War The League failed to prevent the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay in 1932 over the arid Chaco Boreal region of South America. Although the region was sparsely populated, it gave control of the Paraguay River which would have given one of the two landlocked countries access to the Atlantic Ocean, and there was also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum. Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all-out war in 1932, when the Bolivian army, following the orders of President Daniel Salamanca Urey, attacked a Paraguayan garrison at Vanguardia. Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did not take action when the Pan-American conference offered to mediate instead. The war was a disaster for both sides, causing 100,000 casualties and bringing both countries to the brink of economic disaster. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935, Paraguay had seized control over most of the region. This was recognized in a 1938 truce by which Paraguay was awarded three-quarters of the Chaco Boreal. The Abyssinian Crisis 1935-6 This involved the aggression of Italy, led by Mussolini, in Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Mussolini wanted to create a Fascist Roman Empire and saw the Horn of Africa as an ideal area for expansion. Italy already controlled Libya, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland so Abyssinia would help link its possessions. Italy had unsuccessfully tried to conquer the area in 1896. In October 1935 Mussolini was successful against the meagre troops of Emperor Haile-Salassie. Abyssinia appealed to the League and within two weeks Mussolini’s actions were condemned and economic sanctions were imposed. These sanctions were not very good because Italy still managed to obtain steel, copper and oil. The League did ban arms sales to Italy, but made Abyssinia weak by not letting it have any arms either! Mussolini did not take the League’s sanctions seriously and he threatened war if his oil supplies were stopped. Anthony Eden of Britain argued in favour of an oil embargo but the issue was complicated by secret diplomacy. Hoare-Laval Pact (December 1935) Samuel Hoare (GB) and Laval (France) made an agreement that if Mussolini stopped fighting, he could have most of Abyssinia. The world press published the pact, Hoare resigned and the agreement failed. Meanwhile Mussolini conquered Abyssinia entering Addis Ababa in May 1936 and Haile-Salassie fled. Mussolini had said ‘If the League had extended economic sanctions of oil I would have had to withdraw from Abyssinia in a week". The League had bungled its negotiations and had, once again failed miserably to maintain peace. NOTE: The Abyssinian affair destroyed the ‘Stresa Front’. Britain and France had been meeting with Mussolini at Stresa in an attempt to unite against Hitler’s Germany. The actions of Hoare and Laval caused Italy to side with Germany henceforward. Spanish Civil War On 17 July 1936, armed conflict broke out between Spanish Republicans (the left-wing government of Spain) and Nationalists (the right-wing rebels, including most officers of the Spanish Army). Alvarez del Vayo, the Spanish minister of foreign affairs, appealed to the League in September 1936 for arms to defend its territorial integrity and political independence. However, the League could not itself intervene in the Spanish Civil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict. Hitler and Mussolini continued to aid General Franco’s Nationalist insurrectionists, and the Soviet Union aided the Spanish loyalists. The League did attempt to ban the intervention of foreign national volunteers. Axis re-armament The League was powerless and mostly silent in the face of major events leading to World War II such as Hitler's re-militarisation of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and annexation of Austria. As with Japan, both Germany in 1933 – using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext – and Italy in 1937 simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgment. The League commissioner in Danzig was unable to deal with German claims on the city, a significant contributing factor in the outbreak of World War II in 1939. The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland.
3. The League Failed to bring about Multilateral Disarmament i.1923 – The Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance ii.1924 – The Geneva Protocol Both of these asked for a level of disarmament, but were rejected. iii.1923-4 – Geneva Disarmament Talks (including USA and USSR)
This failed because France still felt insecure, and would not disarm. In October 1933 Hitler withdrew from the talks stating that if other powers did not reduce the level of their arms to Germany’s level, he would rearm Germany to their level. iv.NOTE: The only successful step towards disarmament took place at Washington (1921-2, Naval Sizes in Pacific.) This was hosted by the USA, not the League of Nations.
General weaknesses The League did not, in the long term, succeed. The outbreak of World War II was the immediate cause of the League's demise, but there was also a variety of other, more fundamental, flaws. The League, like the modern United Nations, lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were very reluctant to do. Economic sanctions, which were the most severe measure the League could implement short of military action, were difficult to enforce and had no great impact on the target country, because they could simply trade with those outside the League. The problem is exemplified in the following passage, taken from The Essential Facts About the League of Nations, a handbook published in Geneva in 1939: "As regards the military sanctions provided for in paragraph 2 of Article 16, there is no legal obligation to apply them… there may be a political and moral duty incumbent on states… but, once again, there is no obligation on them." The League's two most important members, the United Kingdom and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League. So soon after World War I, the populations and governments of the two countries were pacifist. The British Conservatives were especially tepid on the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of the organization. Ultimately, the UK and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of growing German militarism under Adolf Hitler. Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their time as part of the League was short. One key weakness of the League was that the United States never joined, which took away much of the League's potential power. Even though President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League's formation, the United States Senate voted on January 19, 1920 not to join the League. Wilson's stroke and protracted convalescence prevented him from pursuing the issue. The League also further weakened when the t powers left in the 1930s. Japan began as a permanent member of the Council, but saw the League as Euro-centric and withdrew in 1932. Italy also began as a permanent member of the Council but withdrew in 1937. The League had accepted Germany as a member in 1926, deeming it a "peace-loving country", but Adolf Hitler pulled Germany out when he came to power in 1933. Another major power, the Bolshevik Soviet Union, was only a member from 1934, when it joined to antagonise Germany (which had left the year before), to December 14, 1939, when it was expelled for aggression against Finland. The League's neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision. The League required a unanimous vote of its nine (later fifteen) member Council to enact a resolution, so conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions. Some decisions also required unanimous consent of the Assembly; that is, agreement by every member of the League. Another important weakness of the League was that it tried to represent all nations, but most members protected their own national interests and were not committed to the League or its goals. The reluctance of all League members to use the option of military action showed this to the full. If the League had shown more resolve initially, countries, governments and dictators may have been more wary of risking its wrath in later years. These failings were, in part, among the reasons for the outbreak of World War II. Moreover, the League's advocacy of disarmament for the United Kingdom and France (and other members) whilst at the same time advocating collective security meant that the League was unwittingly depriving itself of the only forceful means by which its authority would be upheld. This was because if the League was to force countries to abide by international law it would primarily be the Royal Navy and the French Army which would do the fighting. Futhermore, the United Kingdom and France were not rich enough to enforce international law across the globe, even if they wished to do so. For its members League obligations meant there was a danger that states would get drawn into international disputes which did not directly affect their respective national interests. On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy's war of conquest against Abyssinia, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin told the House of Commons that collective security "failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions.... [T]he real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war.... [I]f collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential part of collective security." It was an accurate assessment and a lesson which clearly was applied in the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, which stood as the League's successor insofar as its role as guarantor of the security of Western Europe was concerned. The League of Nations failed because it was weak from the start?
Ideal League
League in Practice was Weak
1. All nations should be members.
Not all nations were members (e.g. USA)
2. All nations should be equal partners in the League.
Not equal partners because major powers made decisions in the Council.
3. The League should be able to make decisions quickly and easily.
League structure was weak, unanimity caused delays.
4. National interests should be second to the league’s interests.
Nations were more interested in their OWN affairs, especially after 1929 with the economic crisis.
5. Members should obey the League’s sanctions: a.The Moral Sanction b.The Economic Sanction c.The Military Sanction
It was ignored (e.g. Japan in Manchuria – 1931) Offenders could trade with none League members (e.g. Abyssinia Crisis – 1935/6) It was silly to use violence to stop violence
Inter-War Diplomacy: Improved Relations 1921-29
A. Washington Naval Treaties (1921-2) Though following a policy of isolation the USA hosted these talks about naval disarmament, especially the balance of power in the Pacific. Agreements Reached 1.GB, USA, France & Japan agreed to respect each other’s Pacific possessions & guarantee China’s independence. 2.Japan would restore Kias-Chow & Shantung to China. Japan to withdraw from Siberia, in Russia. 3.There would be a ten year stoppage in the building of capital ships (more than 10,000 tons with guns larger than 8"). A ratio of USA:5, GB:5, Japan:3, France:1.75 and Italy:1.75 was to be maintained in the building of capital ships. Effects 1.Lessened possibility of naval war in the Far East where Japan & USSR had ideas about expanding into China. 2.The alliance of First World War victors was reaffirmed, despite USA’s isolation policy. 3.Though better international relations resulted, the USSR was not invited to the talks, despite her extensive Far Eastern interests. (USSR was, as yet, not recognised.) 4.Treaty of Rapallo (April 1922) – Signed, 2 months after the Washington Treaty, by Germany and Soviet Russia. They said they would not attack each other and trade links were opened. Both powers were no longed isolated. However, 1.A secret annex signed on July 29 allowed Germany to train their military in Soviet territory, thus violating the Treaty of Versailles. 2.The treaty ended the diplomatic isolation of both countries in the wake of World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917. In the West, it was viewed with alarm as strengthening the international position of both governments. 3.Poland, the Baltic states and Finland were concerned by this strengthening of Russian positions. The attempt to counter this development by closer cooperation in the fields of defence and foreign politics failed however, mainly due to resistance in the parliaments. 4.Though reaffirmed on paper in the Treaty of Berlin, 1926, the understanding between the two powers waned with Germany's rapprochement with Britain and France in the middle years of the decade. B. The Locarno Pacts, 1925 Britain, France & Germany agreed to meet in Switzerland, at Locarno, in 1925. Agreements 1.Germany accepted her frontiers with France and Belgium, & agreed not to change them. 2.Germany agreed not to alter her borders with Poland or Czechoslovakia without discussion with France and her Little Entente partners. Effects 1.Relations between France and Germany improved because France felt more secure and Germany realised there was some hope of regaining lands on her eastern borders. 2.Germany joined the League of Nations as a permanent member of the Council in 1926. 3.The Locarno Treaties were regarded as the keystone of the improved western European diplomatic climate of the period 1924-1930, though tension persisted in eastern Europe. The "spirit of Locarno" was seen in Germany's September 1926 admission to the League of Nations, the international organization established under the Versailles treaty to promote world peace and co-operation, and in the subsequent withdrawal (completed in June 1930) of Allied troops from Germany's western Rhineland. 4.One notable exception from the Locarno arrangements was, however, the Soviet Union, which saw western détente as potentially deepening its own political isolation in Europe, in particular by detaching Germany from her own understanding with Moscow under the April 1922 Treaty of Rapallo. 5.The Locarno spirit did not survive the revival of German nationalism from 1930. Proposals in 1934 for an "eastern Locarno" pact securing Germany's eastern frontiers foundered on German opposition and on Poland's insistence that her 1920 territorial gains from the Soviets should be covered by any western guarantee of her borders. Germany formally repudiated her Locarno undertakings in sending troops into the demilitarised Rhineland on 7 March 1936.
C. Kellogg-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris) 1928 In 1926 Germany signed a Treaty of Neutrality with the USSR. (Renewed Rapallo of 1922.) This worried the French. In April 1927 Briand appealed to the US Secretary of State, F.B. Kellogg for assistance. A nine power conference met in Paris in August 1928 and eventually 65 nations signed a pact that outlawed war unless a nation acted in self-defence. Effects 1.US involvement reassured France and America’s other European allies. 2.USSR signed the Pact and marks some recognition of Communist Russia by other powers. 3.Germany signed the Pact and this allayed French suspicions of Germany’s aggression. 4.This Pact was later viewed as being of good intent, but having no practical means of preventing war. 5.As a practical matter, the Kellogg-Briand Pact did not live up to its aim of ending war, and in this sense it made no immediate contribution to international peace and proved to be ineffective in the years to come; the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, and the German invasion of Poland, were prime examples of this. However, the pact is an important multilateral treaty because, in addition to binding the particular nations that signed it, it has also served as one of the legal bases establishing the international norm that the use of military force is presumptively unlawful. 6.Notably, the pact served as the legal basis for the creation of the notion of crime against peace — it was for committing this crime that the Nuremberg Tribunal sentenced a number of persons responsible for starting World War II.
D. Changes to Reparations J.M.Keynes had wanted that £6,600 million was too much to expect from Germany in reparations. Two plans, in 1924 and 1929, gave Germany assistance from the US. a. Dawes Plan 1924 Germany fell behind in reparation payments to France, so in January 1923, France occupied the Ruhr valley (on the Franco-Germany Rhineland border). France’s intention was to take reparations in the form of coal. France only withdrew her troops after the Dawes Plan was drawn up. Germany still had the same amount to pay in reparations, but received a loan of £40 million and payments were phased in steps: £50 million in the first year, building up to £125 million in the 5th year. Effects 1.The Ruhr was evacuated in July 1925. 2.Germany was treated as an equal for the first time, and this paved the way for Locarno (1925) and Germany’s entry to the League (1926) 3.Germany’s economy improved under Stresemann (died 1929)
b. Young Plan 1929 Stresemann appealed to the USA for further assistance in paying reparations (to update the Dawes Plan). The Young committee reduced Germany’s liability to £2,000 million (about 1/3 of the original sum), to be paid over 59 years (i.e. Until 1988). It was to start in May 1930. Effects 1.Stresemann’s status as an international statesman grew, as did his popularity at home. 2.The realistic sum to be paid by Germany promised well for future relations between Germany, France and Britain. NB. The Young Plan collapsed because in October 1929, the Wall Street Crash occurred in America, and this financial crisis spread to Germany, and then other European powers. Germany could not afford to pay reparations 1931-2, and Hitler refused to pay anything after 1933.
Conclusion Improvements in international relations in 1920s, A-D above, were the result of ‘power diplomacy’ and NOT the work of the League of Nations whose main aim was to keep peace.
The Aftermath of WWI
Blockade of Germany
Throughout the armistice the Allies maintained the naval blockade of Germany begun during the war. This blockade is estimated to have caused the death of 800,000 German civilians from malnutrition during the final two years of the war. The continuation of the blockade after the fighting ended, as Leckie wrote in Delivered From Evil, would "torment the Germans… driving them with the fury of despair into the arms of the devil". Some historians have since argued that the harsh post-war treatment was one of the primary causes of World War II, others have advocated the Allies should have been even harder on Germany. - - Winston Churchill referred to the blockade during his March 3, 1919, speech to the British House of Commons:
"We are holding all our means of coercion in full operation… we are enforcing the blockade with vigour… Germany is very near starvation. The evidence I have received… shows… the great danger of a collapse of the entire structure of German social and national life, under the pressure of hunger and malnutrition."
The blockade was not lifted until June of 1919 when the Treaty of Versailles was signed by most of the combatant nations.
Treaty of Versailles (See below for more details)
After the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June the 28th 1919 officially ended the war. Included in the 440 articles of the treaty were the demands that Germany officially accept responsibility for starting the war and pay heavy economic reparations. The treaty also included a clause to create the League of Nations. The US Senate never ratified this treaty and the US did not join the League, despite President Wilson's active campaigning in support of the League. The United States negotiated a separate peace with Germany, finalised in August 1921.
An indirect action of the treaty, the division of Germany’s colonies throughout Africa and Asia, would not be seen for decades. America, while not happy with the terms of the treaty, pressed European nations that were accepting Germany’s old colonies to have the native citizens there treated with the same respect they got when Germany were there. This was not the case, especially in French Indochina (the future Vietnam) and would lead to future conflict.
Influenza pandemic
A separate but related event was the great influenza pandemic. A virulent new strain of the flu, originating in the United States but misleadingly known as "Spanish Flu", was accidentally carried to Europe by infected American forces personnel. The disease spread rapidly through both the continental U.S. and Europe, eventually reaching around the globe. The exact number of deaths is unknown but over 20 million people are estimated to have died from the flu worldwide. In 2005, a study found that, "The 1918 virus strain developed in birds and was similar to the 'bird flu' that today has spurred fears of another worldwide epidemic."
Geopolitical and economic consequences of WWI
Revolutions
Perhaps the single most important event precipitated by the privations of the war was the Russian Revolution of 1917. Socialist and explicitly Communist uprisings also occurred in many other European countries from 1917 onwards, notably in Germany and Hungary.
As a result of the Bolsheviks' failure to cede territory, German and Austrian forces defeated the Russian armies, and the new communist government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. In that treaty, Russia renounced all claims to Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland (specifically, the formerly Russian-controlled Congress Poland of 1815) and Ukraine, and it was left to Germany and Austria-Hungary "to determine the future status of these territories in agreement with their population." Later on, Lenin's government renounced also the Partition of Poland treaty, making it possible for Poland to claim its 1772 borders. However, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was rendered obsolete when Germany was defeated later in 1918, leaving the status of much of eastern Europe in an uncertain position.
Germany
The German Revolution is a series of events that occurred in 1918-1919, culminating in the overthrow of the Kaiser and the establishment of the weak Weimar Republic. Like the Russian February Revolution, no single political party led the rebellion, and workers' councils similar to the soviets seized power across the country. However, the events continued to polarise the Left, not least because of the use of the right-wing Freikorps paramilitaries by the Social-Democratic government in order to suppress the far-left Spartacist revolt.
Like the Russian Revolution, the German Revolution occurred in the context of the disastrous consequences of World War I. The concession of defeat in war by the Supreme Command under Erich Ludendorff triggered a political crisis, leading to the assumption of power by the liberal Prince Max von Baden. Although the main mass workers' party, the Social-Democratic Party (SPD), participated in the Government, this proved insufficient in preventing rebellion.
Communists of the Spartacist League fighting in the streetsThe uprising began in Kiel from 29 October - 3 November 1918, when forty thousand sailors and marines took over the port in protest at a proposed engagement with the Royal Navy by German Naval Command, seeing as they considered the attack "suicidal". By November 8, Workers' and Soldiers' Councils had seized most of Western Germany, laying the foundations for the so-called Räterepublik ("Council Republic"). Kaiser Wilhelm was forced to abdicate on 9 November, ending the German monarchy, although monarchial support continued to run strong, especially in the middle- and upper-classes. The SPD were catapulted into power as rulers of the new republic alongside their more radical counterparts, the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD).
However, the united front disintegrated in late December 1918 as the USPD left the coalition in protest at perceived SPD compromises with the (capitalist) status quo. Furthermore, a second revolutionary wave swept Germany in January 1919, led by the communist revolutionary Spartacist League. In response, Social-Democratic leader Friedrich Ebert employed nationalist militia, the Freikorps, to suppress the uprising. The two most famous victims of this counter-revolutionary operation were the Spartacist leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, who were killed on 15 January 1919. By May 1919, the revolutionary Left were routed.
The German Revolution laid the foundations for the Weimar Republic which in turn paved the way for the Nazis to rise to power.
Russia
Russia, already suffering socially and economically, was torn by a deadly civil war that killed more than 15 million people in one way or another and devastated large areas of the country. During the Russian Revolution and subsequent civil war, many non-Russian nations gained brief or longer lasting periods of independence. Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia gained relatively permanent independence, although the Baltic states were annexed by the Soviet Union in 1939.
Romania, initially formed from the union of Wallachia and Moldova retrieved the Bessarabia from Russia. Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan states were established in Caucasus region. In 1922 all these countries were invaded by Soviets and proclaimed Soviet Republics. Similar events happened in Central Asia. However, the Soviet Union, the successor of the Russian Empire, was lucky that Germany lost the war against the Western Allies because it was able to reject the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. That treaty would have taken huge portions of rich territory and population from them.
Austro-Hungarian Empire
With the war having turned decisively against the Central Powers, the peoples of the Austro-Hungarian Empire lost faith in it, and even before the armistice in November, radical nationalism had already lead to several declarations of independence in September and October 1918. Originally the Allies had hoped to maintain Austria-Hungary (although reduced) as a counterbalance to German power in central Europe and had interpreted the Woodrow Wilson's 14 points within the framework of a federal Austria-Hungary. However, due to progress of the war and lobbying by separatists from within and outside the Empire the Allied powers slowly began to recognise its nations as distinct entities.
The resolution of borders and governments in south-central Europe in the time after November 1918 was not easy. As the central government had ceased to operate vast areas, these regions found themselves without a government and many new groups attempted to fill the void. During this same period, the population was facing food shortages and was, for the most part, demoralized by the losses incurred during the war. Various political parties, ranging from ardent nationalists, to social-democrats, to communists attempted to set up governments in the names of the different nationalities. In other areas, existing nation states such as Romania engaged regions that they considered to be theirs. These moves created de-facto governments that complicated life for diplomats, idealists, and the western allies.
The western allies were officially supposed to occupy the old Empire but rarely had enough troops to do so effectively. They had to deal with local authorities who usually had their own agenda to fulfill. At the peace conference in Paris the diplomats had to reconcile these authorities with the competing demands of the nationalists who had turned to them for help during the war, the strategic or political desires of the Western allies themselves, and other agendas such as a desire to implement the spirit of the 14 points.
For example, in order to live up to the ideal of self determination laid out in the 14 points, Germans, whether Austrian or German should be able to decide their own future and government. However, the French especially were concerned that an expanded Germany would be a huge security risk. Further complicating the situation, delegations such as the Czechs and Slovenians made strong claims on some German-speaking territories.
The result was treaties that compromised many ideals, offended many allies, and set up an entirely new order in the area. Many people hoped that the new nation states would allow for a new era of prosperity and peace in the region, free from the bitter quarelling between nationalities that had marked the preceding fifty years. However, this hope turned out to be far too optimistic. Changes in territorial configuration after World War I included:
The new states of eastern Europe nearly all had large national minorities. Hundreds of thousands of Germans found themselves in the newly created countries as minorities. A quarter of ethnic Hungarians found themselves living outside of Hungary. Many of these national minorities found themselves in bad situations because the modern governments were intent on defining the national character of the countries, often at the expense of the other nationalities.
Ottoman Empire
At the end of the war the Ottoman government collapsed completely and the Ottoman Empire was divided amongst the victorious powers with the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres on August 10, 1920. France and Britain got most of the Middle East, and the British were given the Mandate of Palestine under the League of Nations. Italy and Greece were given much of Anatolia. But Treaty of Sèvres was never applied and Turkish resistance forced out the Greeks while the Italians were unable to establish themselves.An autonomous Kurdish area was also created, but attempts to become independent in the 1920s were suppressed by the Turkish revolutionaries.
After Turkish resistance led by Kemal Atatürk had developed the control over the Anatolia and pushed the allies out, a new treaty was needed as the conditions of the Treaty of Sèvres was inapplicable. The Treaty of Lausanne formally ended all hostilities and led to the creation of the modern Turkish republic. Before Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey and the Soviet Union had already signed the Treaty of Kars , which already brought the peace on the eastern boarder of Turkey.
Treaty of Kars was ratified in Yerevan on September 11, 1922 after First Republic of Armenia became part of Soviet Union
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, funding the War had a huge economic cost. From being the World's largest overseas investor, it became one of its biggest debtors, with interest payments forming around 40% of all government spending. Inflation more than doubled between 1914 and its peak in 1920, while the value of the Pound Sterling (consumer expenditure [2]) fell by 61.2%. Reparations in the form of free German coal depressed the local industry, precipitating the 1926 General Strike.
Less concrete changes include the growing assertiveness of Commonwealth nations. Battles such as Gallipoli for Australia and New Zealand, and Vimy Ridge for Canada led to increased national pride and a greater reluctance to remain subordinate to Britain, leading to the growth of diplomatic autonomy in the 1920s. Traditionally loyal dominions such as Newfoundland were deeply disillusioned by Britain's apparent disregard for their soldiers, eventually leading to the unification of Newfoundland into the Confederation of Canada. Colonies such as India and Nigeria also became increasingly assertive because of their participation in the war. The populations in these countries became increasingly aware of their own power and Britain's fragility.
In Ireland the delay in finding a resolution to the home rule issue, partly caused by the war, as well as the 1916 Easter Rising and a failed attempt to introduce conscription in Ireland, increased support for separatist radicals, and led indirectly to the outbreak of the Anglo-Irish War in 1919.
United States
In the USA, disillusioned by the failure of the war to achieve the high ideals promised by President Woodrow Wilson, the American people chose isolationism and, after an initial recession enjoyed several years of unbalanced prosperity until the 1929 Stock Market crash. However, American commercial interests did finance Germany's rebuilding and reparations efforts, at least until the onset of the Great Depression. The close relationships between American and German businesses became somewhat of an embarrassment after the Nazis took over Germany in 1933.
France
For France, the end of the War seemed to finally mark the end of Prussian-German domination which had lasted since the 1870 Franco-Prussian War.
However the Chief commander of the Allied forces, Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch, had demanded that for the future protection of France the Rhine river should now form the border between France and Germany. Based on history, he was convinced that Germany would again become a threat, and, on hearing the terms of the Treaty of Versailles that had left Germany substantially intact, he observed with great accuracy that "This is not Peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years." After this critical statement, Foch was amazed to see himself rise in power.
Also extremely important in the War was the participation of French colonial troops from Indochina, North Africa, and Madagascar without whom France might well have fallen. When these soldiers returned to their homelands and continued to be treated as second class citizens, many became the nucleus of pro-independence groups.
Social trauma
The experiences of the war led to a sort of collective national trauma afterwards for all the participating countries. The optimism of 1900 was entirely gone and those who fought in the war became what is known as "the Lost Generation" because they never fully recovered from their experiences. For the next few years much of Europe became obsessive in its mourning and memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns.
This social trauma manifested itself in many different ways. Some people were revolted by nationalism and what it had caused and began to work toward a more internationalist world through organizations such as the League of Nations. Pacifism became increasingly popular. Others had the opposite reaction, feeling that only strength and military might could be relied on for protection in a chaotic and inhumane world that did not respect hypothetical notions of civilization. Certainly a sense of disillusionment and cynicism became pronounced. Nihilism grew in popularity. Many people believed that the war heralded the end of the world as they had known it, including the collapse of capitalism and imperialism. Communist and socialist movements around the world drew strength from this theory, enjoying a level of popularity they had never known before. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or particularly harshly affected by the war such as central Europe, Russia, and France.
Artists such as Otto Dix, George Grosz, Ernst Barlach, and Käthe Kollwitz represented their experiences, or those of their society, in blunt paintings and sculpture. Similarly, authors such as Erich Maria Remarque wrote grim novels detailing their experiences. These works had a strong impact on society causing a great deal of controversy and highlighting conflicting interpretations of the war. In Germany, nationalists including the Nazis believed that much of this work was degenerate and undermined the cohesion of society as well as dishonouring the dead.
Postwar settlements
After the war, the victors met at the Palace of Versailles, near Paris, to tell Germany the terms of peace. Defeated Germany was not allowed to send any delegates, and had no choice but to accept whatever was decided. Most of the delegates wanted revenge. Only President Woodrow Wilson of the United States wanted a better world.
Woodrow Wilson: President of America. He was a History professor. He wanted to make the world safe. He wanted to end war by making a fair peace. In 1918, Wilson published ‘Fourteen Points’ saying what he wanted. He said that he wanted disarmament, and a League of Nations. He also promised self-determination for the peoples of Eastern Europe.
Lloyd George: Prime Minister of England. He said he would ‘make Germany pay’ – because he knew that was what the British people wanted to hear. He wanted ‘justice’, but he did not want revenge. He said that the peace must not be harsh – that would just cause another war in a few years time. He tried to get a ‘halfway point’ – a compromise between Wilson and Clemenceau.
Georges Clemenceau: Prime Minister of France. He wanted revenge, and to punish the Germans for what they had done. He wanted to make Germany pay for the damage done during the war. He also wanted to weaken Germany, so France would never be invaded again
Some Terms of the Treaty
1. Germany had to accept the blame for starting the war.2. Germany was forbidden to have submarines or an air force. She could have a navy of only six battleships, and an army of just 100,000 men. In addition, Germany was not allowed to place any troops in the Rhineland, the strip of land, 50 miles wide, next to France.
3. Germany had to pay £6,600 million, called reparations, for the damage done during the war.
4. Germany lost land in Europe. Germany’s colonies were given to Britain and France.
5. Germany could not join the League of Nations
6. Germany could never unite with Austria.
Map 1: German Territorial Losses, Treaty of Versailles, 1919
German response to the Treaty
When the Germans heard about the Treaty of Versailles, they felt ‘pain and anger’. They felt it was unfair. They had not been allowed to take part in the talks – they had just been told to sign. At first they refused to sign the Treaty. Some Germans wanted to start the war again.
1. The Germans were angry at Clause 231; they said they were not to blame for the war. The soldier sent to sign the Treaty refused to sign it – ‘To say such a thing would be a lie,’ he said.
2. The Germans were angry about reparations; they said France and Britain were trying to starve their children to death. At first they refused to pay, and only started paying after France and Britain invaded Germany (January 1921).
3. The Germans were angry about their tiny army. They said they were helpless against other countries. At first they refused to reduce the army, and the sailors sank the fleet, rather than hand it over.
4. The Germans also thought the loss of territory was unfair. Germany lost a tenth of its land. Other nations were given self-determination – but the Treaty forced Germans to live in other countries. Germans were also angry that they could not unite with the Austrian Germans.
Verdicts on the Treaty
Clemenceau:
liked the harsh things that were in the Treaty:
· Reparations (would repair the damage to France),
· The tiny German army, and the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland (would protect France),
· France got Alsace-Lorraine, and German colonies.
But he wanted the Treaty to be harsher.
Wilson:
Wilson got self-determination for the peoples of Eastern Europe, and a League of Nations, but he hated the Treaty:
· few of his ‘Fourteen Points’ got into the Treaty,
· when Wilson went back to America, the Senate refused to join the League of Nations, and even refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles!
Lloyd George:
Many British people wanted to ‘make Germany pay’, but Lloyd George hated the Treaty. He liked:
· the fact that Britain got some German colonies,
· the small German navy (helped British sea-power).
But he thought that the Treaty was far too harsh.
Other Treaties
· The Treaty of Saint Germain with Austria in 1919 took land from the old Austrian empire to create Czechoslovakia and (by giving it to Serbia) Yugoslavia. Austria also lost territory to Poland.
· The Treaty of Trianon with Hungary in 1920 took land from Hungary and gave it to the new nation-states. Transylvania was given to Romania, and land was given to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
· The Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria in 1919 gave Bulgarian land to Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia.
· The Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey in 1920 was mainly about splitting up the Turkish empire between France and Britain, but as part of the Treaty, most of the small area of Turkey-in-Europe around Constantinople was given to Greece. In fact, however, this did not last very long – the Turks went to war with the Greeks and drove them out, and the Treaty of Lausanne 1923 gave back this land to Turkey.
The major powers had different aims in 1919 for the post-war world.
1. USA – The republicans defeated Woodrow Wilson in the 1920 presidential election, and they wanted isolation from European affairs.
2. France – France still wasted security from the possibility of a third German attack. To do this she had two policies:
· Encirclement – She tried to surround Germany with countries who were friendlier to France, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Rumania and Poland (The Little Entente)
· France rearmed herself and strengthen her Rhineland border with Germany, by building the Maginot Line (1929-34)
3. Britain wanted to recover her wealth and power via trade.
4. Germany – The Weimar government wanted recovery in every sense: military, economic, political and diplomatic. In order for Germany to achieve any of these, she would have to break the Treaty of Versailles (28th June 1919).
Note: Britain and Germany had one thing in common – the need to recover via trade.
Overview: Improvement and Decline in International Relations (1920-39)
1920s
There was an improvement in international relations in the 1920s, mainly due to the work of three foreign ministers: Austen Chamberlain, Briand and Stresemann (Britain, France and Germany)
1930s
Relations between the powers deteriorated in the 1930s,l especially after 1929, after the Wall Street Crash (29th October) when the major powers’ economies declined, leading to a depression. As a result of the depression, extremist groups (Communists and Fascists) became popular (flourished). The aggressive policies of the Fascists (Germany, Italy and Japan) resulted in the Second World War.)
In the 1930s relations between the powers deteriorated.
1929 Stresemann died and Briand and Chamberlain were out of office.
October 1929, Wall Street Crash, led to a depression in Europe and extremist political groups (Fascist, Nazis) grew in popularity. Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany offered economic growth to their ‘depressed’ peoples and their aggressive foreign policies led to the Second World War (1939-45). In the 1930s neither power diplomacy, nor the League of Nations, could prevent war.
Wall Street Crash and Great Depression
When the Wall Street stock market crashed in October 1929 the world economy was plunged into the great **depression**. By the winter of 1932, America was in the depths of the greatest depression in its history.
Causes of the Depression
The League of Nations
Origins
The idea of international co-operation was not a new one in 1919. There had been earlier attempts, for example:
1864 – International Red Cross, Geneva
1865 – International Telegraph Union
1878 – International Meteorological Organisation
1899 – International Court, The Hague
The last of Wilson’s fourteen points said that a League of Nations should be set up, to keep peace after 1919. To ensure that it was established, Wilson insisted that the League of Nations should be written into the Treaty of Versailles (28th June 1919).
Aims
1. To keep peace
2. To improve living conditions of men and women world-wide
Organisation
The League first met in 1920, in January, and each state had to take an oath (covenant) to say they would abide by the League’s rules for international law and order. The diagram below outlines the organisational structure of the League.
Assembly
In the autumn of each year, each state would send up to three delegates to the Geneva assembly to discuss world problems. Each country had one vote, and a unanimous vote was needed to decide action. As unanimity was never reached, resolutions were passed onto the council.
Council
The great powers (Britain, France, Italy and Japan) of 1920 sat permanently on the council, with smaller nations who observed. They met three or four times a year, and at times of crisis. By a unanimous vote they could levy three sanctions against a nation who broke peace:
a. Moral sanction – A polite warning
b. Economic sanction – The League stopped trading with the offender
c. Military sanction – As a last resort the League would impose its will by force
No sanction could be used if a nation used its veto. The idea was that collective action would produce collective security, and thereby peace. (United we stand, divided we fall) The League’s responses were long-winded.
The Court of Justice
Set up in 1899, at The Hague, in Holland, this department dealt with legal disputes between nations.
International Labour Organisation (ILO)
Its first chairman was Albert Thomas, and he collected evidence world-wide, about working conditions. He wrote a code of good practice, which included:
· Safety regulations
· Sick pay
· Pensions
· Maternity leave
· Trade Union rights
· Restrictions of child labour
Commissions
See diagram above. Special departments dealt with specific world problems.
Secretariat
The first Secretary General was Sir. Eric Drummond, and he led the League’s administration department (Civil Service). He was in charge of:
· Filing information
· Translations
· Press releases
Membership
1920: 24 members
1924: 55 members
1934: 60 members
Some nations joined the League late, e.g. Germany in 1926, USSR in 1934. 18 nations left the League, e.g. Germany in 1933 because other nations would not disarm to her level, Japan in 1933 after invading Manchuria, Italy in 1937 after invading Abyssinia, USSR in 1939 dismissed after the Nazi-Soviet Pact.
Note: AMERICA DID NOT JOIN THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
(It did join the ILO)
League of Nations at Work (1920-1939)
1. It’s success in achieving its second aim
(To improve living conditions for men and women world-wide)
a. The ILO was so successful that the USA joined it. In 1945 it transferred to the UNO.
b. The Health Commission stopped disease epidemics (e.g. measles)
c. The Leprosy Commission helped eliminate leprosy.
d. The Transit and Communication Commission standardised passports and visas, and radio codes were also made common. (Mayday was internationalised.)
e. The Mandates Commission, under Lord Lugard, helped colonies to reach independence.
f. Doctor Nansen helped resettle homeless and stateless people from the Refugee Commission.
2. LON – some successes
Åland Islands
Åland is a collection of around 6,500 islands mid-way between Sweden and Finland. The islands are exclusively Swedish-speaking, but Finland had sovereignty in the early 1900s. During the period from 1917 onwards, most residents wished the islands to become part of Sweden; Finland, however, did not wish to cede the islands. The Swedish government raised the issue with the League in 1921. After close consideration, the League determined that the islands should remain a part of Finland, but be governed autonomously, averting a potential war.
Albania
The border between Albania and Yugoslavia remained in dispute after the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, and Yugoslavian forces occupied some Albanian territory. After clashes with Albanian tribesmen, the Yugoslav forces invaded further. The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region. The commission found in favour of Albania, and the Yugoslav forces withdrew in 1921, albeit under protest. War was again prevented.
Upper Silesia
The Treaty of Versailles had ordered a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should be part of Germany or Poland. In the background, strong-arm tactics and discrimination against Poles led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920). In the plebiscite, roughly 59.6% (around 500,000) of the votes were cast for joining Germany, and this result led to the Third Silesian Uprising in 1921. The League was asked to settle the matter. In 1922, a six-week investigation found that the land should be split; the decision was accepted by both countries and by the majority of Upper Silesians.
Memel
The port city of Memel (now Klaipėda) and the surrounding area was placed under League control after the end of the World War I and was governed by a French general for three years. However, the population was mostly Lithuanian, and the Lithuanian government placed a claim to the territory, with Lithuanian forces invading in 1923. The League chose to cede the land around Memel to Lithuania, but declared the port should remain an international zone; Lithuania agreed. While the decision could be seen as a failure (in that the League reacted passively to the use of force), the settlement of the issue without significant bloodshed was a point in the League's favour.
Greece and Bulgaria
After an incident between sentries on the border between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925, Greek troops invaded their neighbour. Bulgaria ordered its troops to provide only token resistance, trusting the League to settle the dispute. The League did indeed condemn the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria. Greece complied, but complained about the disparity between their treatment and that of Italy
Saar
Saar was a province formed from parts of Prussia and the Rhenish Palatinate that was established and placed under League control after the Treaty of Versailles. A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule, to determine whether the region should belong to Germany or France. 90.3% of votes cast were in favour of becoming part of Germany in that 1935 referendum, and it became part of Germany again.
Mosul
The League successfully - parcicularly for the British and other oil-seekers - resolved a dispute between Iraq and Turkey over the control of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in 1926. According to the UK, which was awarded a League of Nations A-mandate over Iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. A three person League of Nations committee was sent to the region in 1924 to study the case and in 1925 recommended the region to be connected to Iraq, under the condition that the UK would hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to assure the autonomous rights of the Kurdish population. The League Council adopted the recommendation and it decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq. Although Turkey had accepted the League of Nations arbitration in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, it rejected the League's decision. Nonetheless, the UK, Iraq and Turkey made a treaty on 5 June 1926, that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq.
LON – failures
Ruhr
Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany had to pay reparations. They could pay in money or in goods at a set value; however, in 1922 Germany was not able to make its payment. The next year, France and Belgium chose to act upon this, and invaded the industrial heartland of Germany, the Ruhr, despite this being in direct contravention of the League's rules. With France being a major League member, and the United Kingdom hesitant to oppose its close ally, nothing was done in the League despite the clear breach of League rules. This set a significant precedent – the League rarely acted against major powers, and occasionally broke its own rules.
The Manchurian Crisis
18th September 1931, Japanese troops invaded Manchuria and attacked the industrial city of Mukden. Chiang Kai Shek (Chinese nationalist Leader) appealed to the League and to the USA for help. America protested and the League made a ‘Moral sanction’ and sent a Commission to Manchuria led by Lytton whose report condemned Japanese aggression. Unperturbed Japan renamed Manchuria, ‘Manchukuo’ in March 1932, and continued to occupy it. In 1933 Japan left the League of Nations. The big powers were more concerned with domestic issues (National interests came before the League’s affairs). Japanese aggression was not halted, the League’s ‘collective action’ had amounted to nothing.
NB. Only Germany and Italy recognised Japan’s control in ‘Manchukuo’.
The Rabbit. "My offensive equipment being practically nil, it remains for me to fascinate him with the power of my eye."
----
Cartoon from Punch magazine, July 28th 1920, satirising the perceived weakness of the League.
Chaco War
The League failed to prevent the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay in 1932 over the arid Chaco Boreal region of South America. Although the region was sparsely populated, it gave control of the Paraguay River which would have given one of the two landlocked countries access to the Atlantic Ocean, and there was also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum. Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all-out war in 1932, when the Bolivian army, following the orders of President Daniel Salamanca Urey, attacked a Paraguayan garrison at Vanguardia. Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did not take action when the Pan-American conference offered to mediate instead.
The war was a disaster for both sides, causing 100,000 casualties and bringing both countries to the brink of economic disaster. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935, Paraguay had seized control over most of the region. This was recognized in a 1938 truce by which Paraguay was awarded three-quarters of the Chaco Boreal.
The Abyssinian Crisis 1935-6
This involved the aggression of Italy, led by Mussolini, in Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Mussolini wanted to create a Fascist Roman Empire and saw the Horn of Africa as an ideal area for expansion. Italy already controlled Libya, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland so Abyssinia would help link its possessions. Italy had unsuccessfully tried to conquer the area in 1896. In October 1935 Mussolini was successful against the meagre troops of Emperor Haile-Salassie. Abyssinia appealed to the League and within two weeks Mussolini’s actions were condemned and economic sanctions were imposed. These sanctions were not very good because Italy still managed to obtain steel, copper and oil. The League did ban arms sales to Italy, but made Abyssinia weak by not letting it have any arms either! Mussolini did not take the League’s sanctions seriously and he threatened war if his oil supplies were stopped. Anthony Eden of Britain argued in favour of an oil embargo but the issue was complicated by secret diplomacy.
Hoare-Laval Pact (December 1935)
Samuel Hoare (GB) and Laval (France) made an agreement that if Mussolini stopped fighting, he could have most of Abyssinia. The world press published the pact, Hoare resigned and the agreement failed. Meanwhile Mussolini conquered Abyssinia entering Addis Ababa in May 1936 and Haile-Salassie fled.
Mussolini had said ‘If the League had extended economic sanctions of oil I would have had to withdraw from Abyssinia in a week".
The League had bungled its negotiations and had, once again failed miserably to maintain peace.
NOTE: The Abyssinian affair destroyed the ‘Stresa Front’. Britain and France had been meeting with Mussolini at Stresa in an attempt to unite against Hitler’s Germany. The actions of Hoare and Laval caused Italy to side with Germany henceforward.
Spanish Civil War
On 17 July 1936, armed conflict broke out between Spanish Republicans (the left-wing government of Spain) and Nationalists (the right-wing rebels, including most officers of the Spanish Army). Alvarez del Vayo, the Spanish minister of foreign affairs, appealed to the League in September 1936 for arms to defend its territorial integrity and political independence. However, the League could not itself intervene in the Spanish Civil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict. Hitler and Mussolini continued to aid General Franco’s Nationalist insurrectionists, and the Soviet Union aided the Spanish loyalists. The League did attempt to ban the intervention of foreign national volunteers.
Axis re-armament
The League was powerless and mostly silent in the face of major events leading to World War II such as Hitler's re-militarisation of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and annexation of Austria. As with Japan, both Germany in 1933 – using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext – and Italy in 1937 simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgment. The League commissioner in Danzig was unable to deal with German claims on the city, a significant contributing factor in the outbreak of World War II in 1939. The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland.
3. The League Failed to bring about Multilateral Disarmament
i. 1923 – The Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance
ii. 1924 – The Geneva Protocol
Both of these asked for a level of disarmament, but were rejected.
iii. 1923-4 – Geneva Disarmament Talks (including USA and USSR)
This failed because France still felt insecure, and would not disarm. In October 1933 Hitler withdrew from the talks stating that if other powers did not reduce the level of their arms to Germany’s level, he would rearm Germany to their level.
iv. NOTE: The only successful step towards disarmament took place at Washington (1921-2, Naval Sizes in Pacific.) This was hosted by the USA, not the League of Nations.
General weaknesses
The League did not, in the long term, succeed. The outbreak of World War II was the immediate cause of the League's demise, but there was also a variety of other, more fundamental, flaws.
The League, like the modern United Nations, lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were very reluctant to do. Economic sanctions, which were the most severe measure the League could implement short of military action, were difficult to enforce and had no great impact on the target country, because they could simply trade with those outside the League. The problem is exemplified in the following passage, taken from The Essential Facts About the League of Nations, a handbook published in Geneva in 1939:
"As regards the military sanctions provided for in paragraph 2 of Article 16, there is no legal obligation to apply them… there may be a political and moral duty incumbent on states… but, once again, there is no obligation on them."
The League's two most important members, the United Kingdom and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League. So soon after World War I, the populations and governments of the two countries were pacifist. The British Conservatives were especially tepid on the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of the organization. Ultimately, the UK and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of growing German militarism under Adolf Hitler.
Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their time as part of the League was short. One key weakness of the League was that the United States never joined, which took away much of the League's potential power. Even though President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League's formation, the United States Senate voted on January 19, 1920 not to join the League. Wilson's stroke and protracted convalescence prevented him from pursuing the issue.
The League also further weakened when the t powers left in the 1930s. Japan began as a permanent member of the Council, but saw the League as Euro-centric and withdrew in 1932. Italy also began as a permanent member of the Council but withdrew in 1937. The League had accepted Germany as a member in 1926, deeming it a "peace-loving country", but Adolf Hitler pulled Germany out when he came to power in 1933. Another major power, the Bolshevik Soviet Union, was only a member from 1934, when it joined to antagonise Germany (which had left the year before), to December 14, 1939, when it was expelled for aggression against Finland.
The League's neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision. The League required a unanimous vote of its nine (later fifteen) member Council to enact a resolution, so conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions. Some decisions also required unanimous consent of the Assembly; that is, agreement by every member of the League.
Another important weakness of the League was that it tried to represent all nations, but most members protected their own national interests and were not committed to the League or its goals. The reluctance of all League members to use the option of military action showed this to the full. If the League had shown more resolve initially, countries, governments and dictators may have been more wary of risking its wrath in later years. These failings were, in part, among the reasons for the outbreak of World War II.
Moreover, the League's advocacy of disarmament for the United Kingdom and France (and other members) whilst at the same time advocating collective security meant that the League was unwittingly depriving itself of the only forceful means by which its authority would be upheld. This was because if the League was to force countries to abide by international law it would primarily be the Royal Navy and the French Army which would do the fighting. Futhermore, the United Kingdom and France were not rich enough to enforce international law across the globe, even if they wished to do so. For its members League obligations meant there was a danger that states would get drawn into international disputes which did not directly affect their respective national interests.
On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy's war of conquest against Abyssinia, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin told the House of Commons that collective security "failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions.... [T]he real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war.... [I]f collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential part of collective security." It was an accurate assessment and a lesson which clearly was applied in the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, which stood as the League's successor insofar as its role as guarantor of the security of Western Europe was concerned.
The League of Nations failed because it was weak from the start?
a. The Moral Sanction
b. The Economic Sanction
c. The Military Sanction
Offenders could trade with none League members (e.g. Abyssinia Crisis – 1935/6)
It was silly to use violence to stop violence
Inter-War Diplomacy: Improved Relations 1921-29
A. Washington Naval Treaties (1921-2)
Though following a policy of isolation the USA hosted these talks about naval disarmament, especially the balance of power in the Pacific.
Agreements Reached
1. GB, USA, France & Japan agreed to respect each other’s Pacific possessions & guarantee China’s independence.
2. Japan would restore Kias-Chow & Shantung to China. Japan to withdraw from Siberia, in Russia.
3. There would be a ten year stoppage in the building of capital ships (more than 10,000 tons with guns larger than 8"). A ratio of USA:5, GB:5, Japan:3, France:1.75 and Italy:1.75 was to be maintained in the building of capital ships.
Effects
1. Lessened possibility of naval war in the Far East where Japan & USSR had ideas about expanding into China.
2. The alliance of First World War victors was reaffirmed, despite USA’s isolation policy.
3. Though better international relations resulted, the USSR was not invited to the talks, despite her extensive Far Eastern interests. (USSR was, as yet, not recognised.)
4. Treaty of Rapallo (April 1922) – Signed, 2 months after the Washington Treaty, by Germany and Soviet Russia. They said they would not attack each other and trade links were opened. Both powers were no longed isolated. However,
1. A secret annex signed on July 29 allowed Germany to train their military in Soviet territory, thus violating the Treaty of Versailles.
2. The treaty ended the diplomatic isolation of both countries in the wake of World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917. In the West, it was viewed with alarm as strengthening the international position of both governments.
3. Poland, the Baltic states and Finland were concerned by this strengthening of Russian positions. The attempt to counter this development by closer cooperation in the fields of defence and foreign politics failed however, mainly due to resistance in the parliaments.
4. Though reaffirmed on paper in the Treaty of Berlin, 1926, the understanding between the two powers waned with Germany's rapprochement with Britain and France in the middle years of the decade.
B. The Locarno Pacts, 1925
Britain, France & Germany agreed to meet in Switzerland, at Locarno, in 1925.
Agreements
1. Germany accepted her frontiers with France and Belgium, & agreed not to change them.
2. Germany agreed not to alter her borders with Poland or Czechoslovakia without discussion with France and her Little Entente partners.
Effects
1. Relations between France and Germany improved because France felt more secure and Germany realised there was some hope of regaining lands on her eastern borders.
2. Germany joined the League of Nations as a permanent member of the Council in 1926.
3. The Locarno Treaties were regarded as the keystone of the improved western European diplomatic climate of the period 1924-1930, though tension persisted in eastern Europe. The "spirit of Locarno" was seen in Germany's September 1926 admission to the League of Nations, the international organization established under the Versailles treaty to promote world peace and co-operation, and in the subsequent withdrawal (completed in June 1930) of Allied troops from Germany's western Rhineland.
4. One notable exception from the Locarno arrangements was, however, the Soviet Union, which saw western détente as potentially deepening its own political isolation in Europe, in particular by detaching Germany from her own understanding with Moscow under the April 1922 Treaty of Rapallo.
5. The Locarno spirit did not survive the revival of German nationalism from 1930. Proposals in 1934 for an "eastern Locarno" pact securing Germany's eastern frontiers foundered on German opposition and on Poland's insistence that her 1920 territorial gains from the Soviets should be covered by any western guarantee of her borders. Germany formally repudiated her Locarno undertakings in sending troops into the demilitarised Rhineland on 7 March 1936.
C. Kellogg-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris) 1928
In 1926 Germany signed a Treaty of Neutrality with the USSR. (Renewed Rapallo of 1922.) This worried the French. In April 1927 Briand appealed to the US Secretary of State, F.B. Kellogg for assistance. A nine power conference met in Paris in August 1928 and eventually 65 nations signed a pact that outlawed war unless a nation acted in self-defence.
Effects
1. US involvement reassured France and America’s other European allies.
2. USSR signed the Pact and marks some recognition of Communist Russia by other powers.
3. Germany signed the Pact and this allayed French suspicions of Germany’s aggression.
4. This Pact was later viewed as being of good intent, but having no practical means of preventing war.
5. As a practical matter, the Kellogg-Briand Pact did not live up to its aim of ending war, and in this sense it made no immediate contribution to international peace and proved to be ineffective in the years to come; the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, and the German invasion of Poland, were prime examples of this. However, the pact is an important multilateral treaty because, in addition to binding the particular nations that signed it, it has also served as one of the legal bases establishing the international norm that the use of military force is presumptively unlawful.
6. Notably, the pact served as the legal basis for the creation of the notion of crime against peace — it was for committing this crime that the Nuremberg Tribunal sentenced a number of persons responsible for starting World War II.
D. Changes to Reparations
J.M.Keynes had wanted that £6,600 million was too much to expect from Germany in reparations. Two plans, in 1924 and 1929, gave Germany assistance from the US.
a. Dawes Plan 1924
Germany fell behind in reparation payments to France, so in January 1923, France occupied the Ruhr valley (on the Franco-Germany Rhineland border). France’s intention was to take reparations in the form of coal. France only withdrew her troops after the Dawes Plan was drawn up. Germany still had the same amount to pay in reparations, but received a loan of £40 million and payments were phased in steps: £50 million in the first year, building up to £125 million in the 5th year.
Effects
1. The Ruhr was evacuated in July 1925.
2. Germany was treated as an equal for the first time, and this paved the way for Locarno (1925) and Germany’s entry to the League (1926)
3. Germany’s economy improved under Stresemann (died 1929)
b. Young Plan 1929
Stresemann appealed to the USA for further assistance in paying reparations (to update the Dawes Plan). The Young committee reduced Germany’s liability to £2,000 million (about 1/3 of the original sum), to be paid over 59 years (i.e. Until 1988). It was to start in May 1930.
Effects
1. Stresemann’s status as an international statesman grew, as did his popularity at home.
2. The realistic sum to be paid by Germany promised well for future relations between Germany, France and Britain.
NB. The Young Plan collapsed because in October 1929, the Wall Street Crash occurred in America, and this financial crisis spread to Germany, and then other European powers. Germany could not afford to pay reparations 1931-2, and Hitler refused to pay anything after 1933.
Conclusion
Improvements in international relations in 1920s, A-D above, were the result of ‘power diplomacy’ and NOT the work of the League of Nations whose main aim was to keep peace.